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In the context of working hours, flexibilization describes degrees of freedom with regard to the scheduling of the work [1]. Examples are flexitime, optional working time, trust-based working hours [2; 3], long-term (including lifetime) working time accounts and sabbaticals [4]. However, teleworking and working from home also generally allow employees to organize their working hours flexibly, within the framework of Germany’s Working Hours Act (ArbZG) [2; 3]. In 2021, a rising number (46 per cent) of employees in Germany had the freedom to decide for themselves when to begin and end their working day [5].
Flexibility of working hours also concerns variable disposition of human resources in accordance with companies’ requirements. An example is standby duty (where the worker is at a site specified by the employer) and on-call duty (where the worker is at a site of his or her own choice). These arrangements enable work arising outside employees’ regular working hours to be completed flexibly [2]. In 2021 in Germany as a whole, five per cent of employees performed standby duty and six per cent performed on-call duty on at least one day a month. Work on demand, whereby working hours are geared entirely to the workload as it arises, is an extreme form of flexible - and highly variable - working hours. In 2021, around four per cent of employees in Germany performed work on demand. Shift work, an atypical form of work performed in rotating shifts at different times or at constant but unusual working hours (e.g. at night), is also driven by a company’s need for flexible labour. In 2021, eight per cent of employees in Germany worked rotating shifts without night shifts, seven per cent worked rotating shifts including night shifts, and night, early and late shifts were each worked exclusively by one per cent of employees [5].
Flexibility with respect to the place of work refers to a certain degree of freedom to choose where the work is performed [1]. This also includes mobile work, which in the German context refers to work performed away from the employer’s actual site. Mobile work may be performed either at a location chosen by the employee (e.g. on a train) or at one agreed with the employer (e.g. for customer-facing tasks). Mobile work also includes working from home [6]. Originally, this applied solely to the defined category of home-based teleworking. Home-based teleworking is defined legally by the German Workplace Ordinance (ArbStättV) and involves workstations being set up permanently by the employer at employees’ domestic premises. This is not the case with mobile work [7; 8]. The trend is now shifting, where possible, towards hybrid working models that enable work to be carried out partly at the company’s premises and partly in mobile form (e.g. from home) [9]. In hybrid work, in which tasks are performed at multiple locations, possibilities for changing the use of office space are also being discussed, such as co-working spaces [10]. In 2021, 32 per cent of employees already had employment agreements allowing them to work from home. A further third were unable to work from home owing to the nature of their jobs [5].
Workation refers to a mixture of work and vacation [11]. It is an important trend in the context of global mobility and the future of work. One effect is that mobile work performed abroad is also becoming increasingly significant [12].
As a consequence of the digital transformation and the increasingly widespread availability of broadband Internet, employees have been working from flexible locations in greater numbers since the mid-1990s [13]. However, the proportion of employees in Germany who normally worked from home was still only five per cent in 2018 [14], and rising only slowly [15]. The COVID-19 pandemic fuelled the flexible timing and location of work across Germany. In the autumn of 2022, 17 per cent of all hours worked by employees in the country were performed from home, and in the service sector, the figure was almost 25 per cent. However, only just under 50 per cent of all jobs are compatible at all with working from home [9]. For employees whose work requires them to be on site at all times (e.g. those employed in in-patient care or in industrial production), it will be difficult to make the place of work flexible, even in the future [16]. In production, flexibility of the place of work is most likely to be possible where workers work at individual workstations, possibly with work equipment/automatic machinery or machine pools which, however, are not directly linked [17].
Hybrid work can mitigate the drawbacks of mobile working: while work requiring concentration is often easier at home owing to disturbances and interruptions normally being fewer [18], video conferencing can impair the development of creative ideas and thus also innovations [19], and can lead to fatigue [20]. For work tasks with strict requirements concerning data security and privacy, employees in a mobile working environment must take particular care to ensure that third parties are not able to access the data [21]. Another argument against work being exclusively mobile is that companies are social places, i.e. places where people meet, communicate and cooperate with each other [7]. To prevent team members from becoming alienated, personal contact and informal dialogue between colleagues is important. Where flexible arrangements are in place for the timing and place of work, it must be ensured that newly hired personnel, in particular, have sufficient personal contact with colleagues, in order for knowledge to be transferred [22].
With increasing globalization and closer networking between companies around the world, flexible timing of work, in some cases at unusual working hours, is becoming essential for employees whose tasks have an international element, in order for them to be able to communicate and coordinate with others worldwide [23]. In particular, the constant further development of communication and information technologies enables employees to decide for themselves when and where they work [24]. They are therefore no longer required to be present at a particular location.
A flexible place of work requires a functioning communications infrastructure. Germany is creating a sound basis for this, with 5G coverage almost 92 per cent as at the spring of 2024 [25].
In a difficult economic climate, working from flexible locations can yield financial benefits. Businesses and institutions benefit from savings on office and parking space and reduction in their overheads [1].
The shortage of skilled workers and labour in general is likely to be one of the main drivers for flexible models of work. Such models can enhance an employer’s attractiveness [26] and employees’ job satisfaction, and increase staff retention. For women, many of whom are still the primary providers of childcare, and for potential employees who are chronically ill, flexible models of work often offer advantages and can lead to greater integration of these groups into the labour market [27]. Generation Z, born between 1995 and 2010, appears to place a particularly high value on flexibility in the organization of work [1].
Demographic change is also increasing the importance of flexible options for the timing and place of work. It is accompanied by a rise in the proportion of the population that will need care in the future owing to the size of the baby-boomer generation [28], and by increasingly limited capacities in care homes [27]. In the future, more people will probably be forced to look after and care for family members at home [27]. The flexibilization of work will make this possible.
Climate change and the associated efforts to reduce carbon dioxide emissions (expansion of renewable energies) could prompt companies and governments to create incentives for mobile and hybrid working. However, recent studies suggest that although more workers working from home reduces CO2 emissions in the short term, the long-term impact on the emissions balance is not significantly positive, owing to negative effects such as longer commuting distances [29].
Owing to higher temperatures in the summer months and longer periods of heat (accompanied by natural disasters and extreme weather events), flexible working hours, in particular, are likely to become more important, as they enable productive work to be shifted to the hours of the day that cause lower heat stress. Whether a flexible place of work can also reduce heat stress depends on the working and living situation of the individual worker [30].
Measures to increase flexibility of the timing and place of work are particularly effective in the service sector (e.g. in office work and in the public sector) [27]. However, virtual solutions now permit flexibility of the place of work even in vocations requiring a high level of social interaction (e.g. in medicine and social counselling services) [7]. Employees’ influence upon their working hours is greatest in industry and the service sector and among employees with a high level of education. Conversely, it is significantly lower in the skilled trades and among employees with a lower level of education. In addition to on-call duty, standby duty and work on demand, changes to employees’ working hours are often made at short notice in the health and security professions and in the social and cultural services sector in response to employers’ requirements [5].
Shift work is particularly common in industry. It also serves to ensure the provision of services to the population by the public sector and the service sector, and is particularly common among unskilled workers [5].
The increasing flexibilization of work enables employees to reconcile work and personal life better with consideration for their particular life circumstances [1; 27]. It makes it easier for them to care for children [31] and other relatives [27], reduces stress, and increases their motivation and subjective productivity [1]. The majority of companies report that productivity remains consistent regardless of the place of work [32]. In the case of mobile work, however, employees’ tasks are often less clearly defined [24]. Employees whose surroundings are more favourable (size and attractiveness of their homes; neighbourhoods; proximity to green spaces) benefit from working from home. The same is also true, however, for married, older and experienced employees with higher incomes, clear work autonomy and leadership responsibility [33]. Depending on the employee’s particular chronotype, working from home can also reduce daytime tiredness [34]. Concentrated work and independent planning, in particular, can often be achieved more effectively during work at home than in shared offices [35], provided the employee is not distracted by family members and domestic activities [36]. Providing flexibility in the timing and/or place of work is a possible organizational measure for reducing stress caused by increasing heat [37; 38]. When work and private life share the same space, separating work and leisure becomes more difficult [1] and requires, among other things, good self-management and active organization of leisure activities [39]. Pressure to be constantly available otherwise increases and can lead to emotional exhaustion [40]. This can be counteracted by the laying down of rules. Where rules governing the work and working together are inadequate or non-existent, employees performing mobile work may exhibit reduced performance, lower commitment, job dissatisfaction and increased inclination to leave the job [39].
Owing to their greater domestic and family commitments, women are more likely than men to find themselves in dual roles [41]. This can have a stressful effect [42]. The predicted increase in demands arising from the growing need for home care for older family members suggests that the double burden may increase. At the same time, fathers today seek much greater equality and partnership in the division of family responsibilities than was the case in the past. Men may therefore also suffer even more from the double burden in the future [43].
Mobile work requires managers to adapt their management style to "remote leadership". It becomes more difficult for them to provide sensitive support and spontaneous feedback, which are important resources for employees’ health. Remote leadership requires trust in the work employees are doing. If the manager is able to achieve this, employees’ autonomy and discretion increase and have a positive effect on their job satisfaction and health. Accordingly, managers must adapt their role and attitude to the circumstances of flexibility in the timing and place of work [44]. This applies in particular to the induction of new employees who are working from home [45].
Working outside the conventional working environment makes it difficult for employees to maintain social contact with their co-workers. This in turn can lead to a lack of mutual support and a deterioration in productivity. Some mobile workers feel lonely and isolated. Owing to the absence of non-verbal information, the physical separation inherent to mobile work is conducive to misunderstandings in communication, and limits opportunities for coordination between employees, such as constructive discussions in the corridor or office kitchen [1]. Provided the working atmosphere is good, single people in particular prefer the office as a social space [46]. The more frequently employees work remotely, the weaker their sense of belonging to the company or institution. A vicious circle develops [47], because the declining sense of belonging means that employees work remotely even more frequently [39; 47].
In addition, technical difficulties (such as using cloud services) and dependencies (e.g. on internet connections) may be frustrating for employees in mobile work and may also delay their work results [1]. 60 per cent of these employees experience severe Zoom fatigue at least some of the time. Possible consequences include difficulty concentrating, impatience, a lack of mental balance, and also physical factors such as headaches and back pain [48].
An unergonomic mobile work environment can lead to musculoskeletal and eye strain, for example [49].
Although the number of accidents has reached an all-time low, partly owing to the lockdown and working from home [50], the long-term impact on employees’ health of the introduction of working from home is as yet unknown. Initial studies indicate, for example, that the lack of movement at office workplaces is even more pronounced when employees work from home [49], and that various physical complaints can arise even when working hours are comparatively short [51]. It remains to be seen whether further studies will confirm this development and whether this will lead to greater discernment being applied in the future to the option of flexible working.
Flexible working hours (including teleworking and working from home) can blur the limits of both the duration and location of work [2]. This should come as no surprise, since 22 per cent of employees expect to be reachable even outside working hours, and 13 per cent of employees are actually contacted frequently during their leisure time. These figures include managers, who are affected more than the average [5]. Problems such as self-endangerment borne out of self-interest and presenteeism become more likely [52].
Flexible working hours demanded by the employer for operational reasons (such as standby duty or work on demand) reduce the reliability and predictability of working hours [2], result in a poorer work-life balance [53] and impair employees’ well-being [34]. The rising variability of working hours is often accompanied by sleep disorders [54; 55], gastrointestinal complaints, dysfunction of the autonomic nervous system, inner restlessness, nervousness, impairments in family and social life, and a greatly elevated accident risk [55]. Fatigue and exhaustion, back pain and sleep disorders are also reported particularly often in this context [5]. Working on demand has the additional effect of reducing the recreational value of days off [34]. Employees who work on demand are less satisfied with their lives and leisure time than other people, since their leisure time is less easily planned [56]. Shift work often means working atypical hours (e.g. at weekends and outside the 7 am to 7 pm window). This increases the risk of health impairments [57].
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